Speaking, in more detailed terms, could be defined as linguistic activity (Aljumah, 2011:1). According to Thornbury (2005:1), speaking in our first language becomes so natural and automatic that we rarely stop to think about the processes or knowledge involved, until we start learning other languages. Knowledge behind the ability to speak is divided into two categories by Thornbury (2005:11-24;31-37), who names those categories linguistic and extra linguistic knowledge. Linguistic knowledge means being aware of different genres and discourses, pragmatics, grammar, vocabulary, and phonology. The second category, extra linguistic knowledge, includes for example sociocultural knowledge, which means being aware of the cultural norms and values of the society in which the language in question is spoken (Thornbury 2005:31-37).
Economic globalization, scientific inventions, and technological advances are connecting people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds ever closer. On a global scale, speaking ability is increasing, albeit sometimes implicitly acknowledged as a highly sought-after skill. As rightly labeled by Isaacs it is a source of cultural capital in many educational and workplace settings today. (Isaacs, 2016, p. 113). In the case of learning English as a second/ foreign language, achieving effective proficiency in oral communication in the target language is often emphasized as essential for achieving successful integration, removing barriers to academic performance, adequately performing on the job, accessing vital social services, and, on a more macro level, mitigating social isolation and reducing language barriers in linguistically heterogeneous societies.
In addition to L2 interactions with members of the target language community, oral communication is also increasingly common in learners from different linguistic communities who use the target language as the lingua franca to carry out business transactions or to promote cultural exchange (Koo, 2009, p.77 as cited in Isaacs, 2016, p. 113). English is also widely spoken languages with international currency (Jenkins 2000, p. 2). Moreover, to support and compliment nonverbal communication strategies, the ability to respond to an interlocutor in an appropriate and effective way during the time pressures of real-world and face-to-face communication, be it in a mother tongue or in L2, is of great human importance. The importance of speaking as a productive skill has been echoed in the literature. Indeed, it is viewed as a crucial “part of the curriculum in language teaching and viewed as an important object of assessment as well” (Luoma, 2004, p. 1).
Above it was mentioned that speaking as an action, and as a skill, requires background knowledge (Thornbury 2005). It can also be mentioned that foreign language speakers sometimes struggle in finding this knowledge in the pace of a conversation (Dalton-Puffer 2006). This view is shared by Nation and Newton (2009:115-116), who claim that some researchers believe that in case of second-language-learners, the linguistic knowledge is not so easily reachable, and learners need to be “pushed” to reach the knowledge from their brain and use it. Nation and Newton (2009) call this “pushed-output”, and they claim it to be a useful way of teaching speaking, because it ensures that learners use the language productively. In classroom, “pushed output” means creating language use situations in which learners need to use language also in domains they are not so familiar with.
